Origin
Food Pyramid published by the WHO and FAO Joint Expert Consultation
The World Health Organization, in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization, published guidelines that can effectively be represented in a food pyramid relating to objectives to prevent obesity, chronic diseases and dental caries based on meta-analysis [6][7] though they represent it as a table rather than a "pyramid". The structure is similar in some respects to the USDA food pyramid, but there are clear distinctions between types of fats, and a more dramatic distinction where carbohydrates are split on the basis of free sugars versus sugars in their natural form. Some food substances are singled out due to the impact on the target issues the "pyramid" is meant to address, while in a later revision, some recommendations are omitted since they follow automatically from other recommendations while other sub-categories are added. The reports quoted here explain that where there is no stated lower limit in the table below, there is no requirement for that nutrient in the diet.
| Dietary factor | 1989 WHO Study Group recommendations | 2002 Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation recommendations |
|---|---|---|
| Total fat | 15 – 30% | 15 – 30% |
| Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) | 0–10% | <10 td=""> |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) | 3–7% | 6–10% |
| n-6 PUFAs | 5–8% | |
| n-3 PUFAs | 1–2% | |
| Trans fatty acids | <1 td=""> | |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) | By difference | |
| Total carbohydrate | 55–75% | 55–75% |
| Free sugars | 0–10% | <10 td=""> |
| Complex carbohydrate | 50–70% | No recommendation |
| Protein | 10–15% | 10–15% |
| Cholesterol | 0–300 mg/day | <300 da="" mg="" nbsp="" td=""> |
| Sodium chloride (Sodium) | <6 day="" g="" td=""> | <5 day="" g="" td=""> |
| Fruits and vegetables | ≥400g/day | ≥400g/day |
| Pulses, nuts and seeds | ≥30 g/day (as part of the 400 g of fruit and vegetables) | |
| Total dietary fiber | 27–40g/day | From foods |
| NSP | 16–24g/day | From foods |
USDA food pyramid
History
Main article: History of USDA nutrition guides
Food groups
Main article: Food groups
Vegetables
A vegetable is a part of a plant consumed by humans that is generally savory but is not sweet. A vegetable is not considered a grain, fruit, nut, spice, or herb. For example, the stem, root, flower, etc., may be eaten as vegetables. Vegetables contain many vitamins and minerals; however, different vegetables contain different spreads, so it is important to eat a wide variety of types. For example, green vegetables typically contain vitamin A, dark orange and dark green vegetables contain vitamin C,and vegetables like broccoli and related plants contain iron and calcium. Vegetables are very low in fats and calories, but ingredients added in preparation can often add these.Fruits
In terms of food (rather than botany), fruits are the sweet-tasting seed-bearing parts of plants, or occasionally sweet parts of plants which do not bear seeds. These include apples, oranges, plums, bananas, etc. Fruits are low in calories and fat and are a source of natural sugars, fiber and vitamins. Processing fruits when canning or making into juices may add sugars and remove nutrients. The fruit food group is sometimes combined with the vegetable food group. Note that many foods considered fruits in botany because they bear seeds are not considered fruits in cuisine because they lack the characteristic sweet taste, e.g., tomatos or avocados.Oils
The food pyramid advises that fats be consumed sparingly. Butter and oils are examples of fats. Healthy sources of fat can be found in fish, nuts, and certain fruits and vegetables, such as avocados.Dairy
Dairy products are produced from the milk of mammals, most usually but not exclusively cattle. They include milk, yogurt and cheese. Milk and its derivative products are a rich source of dietary calcium, but also provide protein, phosphorus, vitamin A, and vitamin D. However, many dairy products are high in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to vegetables, fruits and whole grains, which is why skimmed products are available as an alternative. For adults, three cups of dairy products are recommended per day.[8][9]Meat and beans
Meat is the tissue – usually muscle – of an animal consumed by humans. Since most parts of many animals are edible, there is a vast variety of meats. Meat is a major source of protein, as well as iron, zinc, and vitamin B12. Meats, poultry, and fish include beef, chicken, pork, salmon, tuna, shrimp, and eggs.The meat group is one of the major compacted food groups in the food guide pyramid. Many of the same nutrients found in meat can also be found in foods like eggs, dry beans, and nuts, such foods are typically placed in the same category as meats, as meat alternatives. These include tofu, products that resemble meat or fish but are made with soy, eggs, and cheeses. For those who do not consume meat or animal products (see Vegetarianism, veganism and Taboo food and drink), meat analogs, tofu, beans, lentils, chick peas, nuts and other high-protein vegetables are also included in this group. The food guide pyramid suggests that adults eat 2–3 servings per day. One serving of meat is 4 oz (110 g), about the size of a deck of cards.
Controversy
Many nutritional experts, like Harvard nutritionist Dr. Walter Willett, believe the 1992 pyramid does not reflect the latest research on dietetics.[10] Certain dietary choices that have been linked to heart disease, such as three cups of whole milk and an 8 oz (230 g), serving of hamburger daily, were technically permitted under the pyramid. The pyramid also lacked differentiation within the protein-rich group ("Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs, and Nuts").[11]Some of the recommended quantities for the different types of food in the old pyramid have also come under criticism for lack of clarity. For instance, the pyramid recommends two to three servings from the protein-rich group, but this is intended to be a maximum. The pyramid recommends two to four fruit servings, but this is intended to be the minimum.[12]
The fats group as a whole have been put at the tip of the pyramid, under the direction to eat as little as possible, which is largely problematic. Under the guide, one would assume to avoid fats and fatty foods, which can lead to health problems. For one, fat is essential in a person's general sustainability.[13][14][15] Research suggests that unsaturated fats aid in weight loss, reduce heart disease risk,[16] lower blood sugar, and even lower cholesterol.[17][18][19] These fats can be found in olive oil,[20][21] nuts,[22][23] pesto,[24] seafood (including fish, shrimp, squid, and krill among many more)[25][26] and avocados.[27][28] Also, they are very long sustaining, and help keep blood sugar at a steady level.[29][30] On top of that, these fats help brain function as well.[31]
Several books have recently claimed that food and agricultural associations exert undue political power on the USDA.[32][33] Food industries, such as milk companies, have been accused of influencing the United States Department of Agriculture into making the colored spots on the newly created food pyramid larger for their particular product. The milk section has been claimed to be the easiest to see out of the six sections of the pyramid, making individuals believe that more milk should be consumed on a daily basis compared to the others.[34] Furthermore, the inclusion of milk as a group unto itself implies that is an essential part of a healthy diet, despite the many people who are lactose intolerant and choose to abstain from dairy, and a number of cultures that have historically consumed little if any dairy products with the exception of breast-feeding.
These controversies prompted the creation of pyramids for specific audiences, particularly some Vegetarian Diet Pyramids.[35][36][37][38]
Alternatives
The Harvard School of Public Health proposes the Healthy eating pyramid, which includes calcium and multi-vitamin supplements as well as moderate amounts of alcohol, as an alternative to the Food Guide Pyramid. Many observers[who?] believe that the Harvard pyramid follows the results of nutrition studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals more closely.[citation needed] But in their book Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever, published in 2004, Ray Kurzweil and Terry Grossman M.D., point out that the guidelines provided in the Harvard Pyramid fail to distinguish between healthy and unhealthy oils. In addition, whole-grain foods are given more priority than vegetables, which should not be the case, as vegetables have a lower glycemic load. Other observations are that fish should be given a higher priority due to its high omega-3 content, and that high fat dairy products should be excluded. As an alternative, the authors postulate a new food pyramid, emphasising low glycemic-load vegetables, healthy fats, such as avocados, nuts and seeds, lean animal protein, fish, and extra virgin olive oil.The University of Michigan Integrative Medicine’s Healing Foods Pyramid emphasizes plant-based choices, variety and balance. It includes sections for seasonings and water as well as healthy fats.
See also
- History of USDA nutrition guides
- List of nutrition guides
- MyPyramid
- MyPlate
- The Food Balance Wheel alternate interpretation of the Food Guide Pyramid
- Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
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